(What I think I know about)... The Human Body

Respiratory System

I don't remember very much detail about everything that I've studied over the years about the human body, but I do remember focusing on the respiratory system, the circulatory system, and the urinary system. In the respiratory system, I know that the main purpose is to supply blood with oxygen so the blood can deliver it to all parts of the body. This process involves all the organs in association with breathing, but well known organs are the lungs, bronchi, the larynx, and the pharynx. A very vital part of the respiratory system is gas exchange. This is the process when our bodies generate oxygenated blood when we breathe in, and release deoxygenated gas when we breathe out. Of course, this process is not this simple, but as I have said, I don't remember much detail.

Circulatory System

Also, in the circulatory system, I know that it is a distribution network to help pass nutrients, such as amino acids and enzymes, hormones, gases, and mainly, blood to and from to and from cells and different parts of the body. In this system the main components are the heart, the veins, and the blood vessels. A part of this system is the cardiovascular system where the blood cells are oxygenated (during gas exchange) and circulated to all different parts of the body.
Finally, the last function of the human body that I can recall is the urinary system. The urinary system, which is also called the excretory system, is an organ system that produces, stores, and releases urine. The main pieces to this apparatus are the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The urinary system's goal is to eliminate whatever excess material and waste there may be in one's body. If this process is done correctly, along with the other 2 systems, then the human body is achieving its ultimate goal of maintaining homeostasis.

Urinary System

Mendelian Genetics: It Makes You Special

As of late, in Biology, we have been studying Mendelian genetics. Mendelian genetics helps us all determine what genetic traits our parents, our siblings, and we possess. All of our traits are determined by alleles. An allele is a form of a gene, and you receive allele from each parent which could be either a dominant or recessive trait. If you receive two dominant alleles, then you are homozygus dominant and will express that trait. If you inherit a dominant and a recessive allele then you are heterozygus and will express the dominant trait. If you adapt only recessive alleles, then you are homozygus recessive and will express the recessive trait. And so, with the help of Mendelian genetics, a few experiments and my wonderful volunteers, I was able to find the genotypes (allele combination) of my mother, father, and younger brother, Cayden.

Traits	Cuyler	Cayden	Carl	Stephanie
Tongue Roller	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Un-Attached Earlobe	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Hitch Hiker’s Thumb	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Widow’s Peak	Yes	Yes	No	Yes

Hitch-Hiker's thumbs up. D00d.

So, with the information provided by this chart, I can conclude that, since tongue rolling is dominant, both my are either homozygus dominant or heterozygus, and both my brother and I are homozygus dominant or heterozygus. I also know, since and un-attached earlobe is a dominant trait as well, that both my parents are either homozygus dominant or heterozygus, and both my brother and I are homozygus dominant or heterozygus. However, since a hitch hiker's thumb is a recessive trait and only my father possess it, it must mean that my mother is homozygus recessive and my father homozygus dominant, which leaves Cayden and me to be heterozygus. Finally, because a widow's peak is a dominant trait and only my mother possess it, then                          
my father is homozygus recessive and my mother is homozygus dominant, and again, leaves Cayden and me to heterozygus. I'm sure there are many other traits in my family that have been passed down for generations, but as you can see, my results for this small experiment aren't very out of the ordinary, which makes sense because we are all family members. However, genetic traits can differ from household to household, which is why Mendelian genetics makes us different in our own funky, little way.

Influeza & The Vaccine

Here is an example of a influenza virus.

Also known as the "seasonal flu" or flu, influenza is a serious and contagious respiratory illness that's caused by the influenza virus. There are two basic types, A and B, which can cause clinical illness in humans. Influenza A can cause moderate to severe illness in all age groups and infects humans and other animals. Influenza B causes milder disease and affects only humans, primarily children. Each virus particle is basically a protein coat surrounding genetic material known as RNA or ribonucleic acid. Different types of the virus infect different hosts. Symptoms from the virus can range from mild to severe, sometimes leading to pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections. Some groups are at a higher risk to influenza than others, including the elderly, young children, and people with certain health conditions.

This image portrays how vaccinations
are derived from chicken eggs.

As the influenza virus replicates, genetic changes can occur. This transformation can produce new forms of the virus. Some of these forms are so different from the originating virus that they may present a significant risk to a potential host population due to a significant lack of immunity to the new virus. This poses a serious problem for scientists because they have to anticipate what the next alteration will be and try to determine what the next vaccination should be composed of, before this new virus is even discovered. Influenza vaccine typically contains both type A and type B viruses. The viruses selected for the vaccine are grown in chicken eggs. For the inactivated (injectable) vaccine, the viruses are killed with formaldehyde. Live virus vaccine is packaged in a special nasal sprayer.

Now, however, researchers in Japan have announced a breakthrough that may put them one step closer to developing a universal flu vaccine. Such a vaccine would protect against illness from the influenza virus regardless of which strain is actually flourishing during any given flu season. The Japanese researchers looked inside the virus instead of outside it to find proteins that aren't likely to mutate the way those on the outside do. The research team targeted three strains of the influenza virus for their study - the H5N1 bird flu, Hong Kong A, and Soviet Union A strains. Hopefully, if these Japanese scientists are able to elaborate on their study, they might be able to discover a vaccination that would take care of all influenza viruses. 

Sources:
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_5381654_influenza-replicate.html
http://www.vaccineinformation.org/flu/qandadis.asp
http://www.flumist.com/flu-symptoms-and-you/?dbsrc=mi-flum-eng-IPick-nnn-unbrned-insemgoog-nnn&WT.srch=1&WT.mc_id=1102&gclid=COff9fvGwqcCFYx_5QodsHRmig
http://www.virology.ws/2009/12/10/influenza-virus-growth-in-eggs/

Can Being Short Cure Cancer?

In this article, it explains how a specific group of Ecuadorians with a rare case of dwarfism called Laron Syndrome is linked to the prevention of diabetes and cancer. Laron Syndrome is found when a mutation occurs in the gene that is responsible for growth hormone receptor which creates insulin-like growth factor 1, which ultimately makes the cell grow and divide. Surprisingly enough, scientists have found that high levels of IGF1 have been found in many types of cancer, and low levels seem to caused longevity in various organisms. Also, thanks to other findings about longevity and aging in mice, scientists believe they might be able to create an anti-aging drug that would stop DNA mutation. Because the Ecuadorians had Laron Syndrome, the studies have shown that the mutations causing the disease also inhibits the development of cancer and diabetes.
I honestly think that this new discovery is remarkable because, since it was found naturally in these humans and in mice and other organisms, there might be a way for scientists and doctors to manipulate this mutation and help impede the production of cancer and diabetes in humans even when they are at high risks. I really do believe that there is hope if such an advancement can be engendered. The only question is, will all humans have to somehow develop a specific kind of dwarfism to prevent us from cancers and diabetes? Also, what would happen to the individuals that were prescribed to this prevention medication (if it were to be created)? Would they be subjected to some other kind of health risks or deadly diseases? I think of how fragile the cell cycle is, and wonder what would happen to a full grown human that is not diagnosed with Laron, or is diagnosed with acromegaly (the opposite Laron which puts people at a higher risk of developing cancer and diabetes [giantism]), if they were to intentionally mutate cells. Hopefully, in due time, there will an even newer discovery which will answer all of these questions...

Kidney Cancer & Us

Last year, more than 1.3 million new cancers were diagnosed in the United States. According to the American Cancer Society, more than 50,000 of these individuals were diagnosed with kidney cancer. However, not all hope is lost. More than 200,000 kidney cancer survivors are living in the United States right now. Recent advances in diagnosis, surgical procedures, and treatment options will allow even more patients to live with the disease, continuing to maintain their normal schedules and lifestyles.
Even though kidney cancer can be a fatal disease, there are signs that can suggest early forms of the cancer to help stop it from growing. Some of these symptoms can include, pain in the side that does not cease, lumps in the abdomen, weight loss, fever, and fatigue. However, the most extreme and known symptom for kidney cancer is blood in the urine. These symptoms can all be indicators of a form of kidney cancer; however, these symptoms may not always lead to the same conclusion. In fact, most often they are caused by other infections or a cyst. Also, there are many different suggestions to what the cause of kidney cancer is, but no one is totally sure.
The cause of kidney cancer is not known, but there are risk factors that have been identified. One major risk factor for kidney cancer is Von Hipple-Lidnau syndrome. VHL is a rare disease that runs in some families, and it is caused by changes in the VHL gene. An abnormal VHL gene increases the risk of kidney cancer and it also can cause cysts or tumors in the eyes, brain, and other parts of the body. Another risk factor can include long term dialysis. Dialysis is a treatment for people whose kidneys do not function normally and helps removes wastes from the blood. Being on dialysis for many years is a risk factor for kidney cancer. Another factor depends on gender. Males are more likely than females to be diagnosed with kidney cancer and it is recorded that it most often occurs in men in the ages of 50-70. Each year in the United States, about 20,000 men and 12,000 women learn they have kidney cancer. Other factors can include smoking, obesity, and high blood pressure. There are different forms and stages of kidney cancer, but first let’s examine how cancer works on a molecular level.
There are many things that can go wrong during the cell cycle and cause the cell to mutate. For example, UV radiation can damage DNA, or maybe a pair of sister chromatids failed to attach to the mitotic spindle properly. However, when something goes wrong during the cell cycle, checkpoints are typically there to stop the cycle and make sure the repair is made so that the replication can continue. In summary, these checkpoint-control systems help ensure the survival of eukaryotes by protecting the organisms from the uncontrolled growth of damaged cells. Also, genes that are involved in helping check over the cell cycle are called proto-oncogenes, and tumor-suppressors. Yet, both of these genes can deform and become dysfunctional and when these checkpoints during cell division are damaged, it can cause a mutated to cell to repeatedly divide into a mass called a tumor. Soon after, this tumor can become malignant, and metastasize, or spread, into the bloodstream or other vital organs. With that said, scientists and doctors have discovered different stages of kidney cancer and one form in particular.
One form of kidney cancer is renal cell carcinoma. A carcinoma is a medical term that refers to an invasive malignant tumor consisting of transformed epithelial cells. Renal cell carcinoma is a type of kidney cancer in which the cancerous cells are found in the lining of very small tubules in the kidney. Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer in adults. Not only is there this form, but other stages, which doctors are currently trying to get a handle of to stop it. The first stage starts out as a tumor 7 centimeters or smaller that is only in the kidney. The second stage is when the tumor is larger than 7 centimeters and only in the kidney. For the next two stages, there are various results that follow the first two stages. However, the most common is during the third stage, a tumor has spread to an adrenal gland, the gland that sits right above the kidney, or in a layer of fatty tissue around the kidney. Next, during the fourth stage, the tumor may have metastasized to other organs which can include the bowel, the pancreas, or the lungs.  Luckily, with this new found information, doctors have been able to develop treatments that will help slow the spreading of these malignant tumors.
Recent treatments for kidney cancer are surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Surgery is the most common treatment for kidney cancer. It is a type of local therapy, and it treats cancer in the kidney and the area close to the tumor.  An operation to remove the kidney is called a nephrectomy. Chemotherapy is also a type of systemic therapy. Anticancer drugs enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. The goal of this treatment is deter the cancer and stop the spreading of the tumor. Finally, another form of treatment is radiation therapy. This is another type of local therapy. It uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. Unfortunately, it affects cancer cells only in the treated area which can be less productive as some other therapies.
The treatment process, if one is diagnosed with kidney cancer, is crucial. Follow-up care after treatment for kidney cancer is extremely important. Even when the cancer seems to have been completely removed or destroyed, the disease sometimes returns because cancer cells can remain in the body after treatment. Many people in the United States have fought this cancer and survived, and many of them still live amongst us today. However, this does not mean it should be taken lightly, and one should take as many precautions as possible to help prevent it.

Kidney cancer project

View more presentations from Cuyler Brodnax.
Sources
http://www.medicinenet.com/kidney_cancer/article.htm

http://www.kidneycancer.org/

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/kidney-cancer/DS00360/DSECTION=risk-factors

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001544

http://www.webmd.com/cancer/understanding-kidney-cancer

I Like Plants, And You Should Too

As of late, while learning about photosynthesis, we have discovered the true reasons why plants are so helpful and are a necessary on our planet. Things such as, when photosynthesis is complete, plants emit the oxygen some of the oxygen that is created which helps us breathe. This is just one example of why plants and photosynthesis are so important. Photosynthesis consists of three energy conversions, absorption of light energy, conversion of light energy to chemical energy, and storage of chemical energy as sugar. Photosynthesis can also be broken down in to two processes, the light reaction and the dark reaction, also know as the Calvin cycle.

In the very beginning of the light reaction, the inputs are sunlight and water. This reaction takes place inside the thylakoid membrane. How this process works is the natural sunlight, or photons, are beamed down, and the energy those photons contain excite a small electron in the reaction center of PSII which then is transported down the ETC to PSI. By doing so, this creates enough energy for a hydrogen ion to pumped through the membrane and into the lumen. Once the electron has reached the end of the ETC it uses its energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. But how are these components replaced you might ask? This is where the water comes in to play. First the water splits, thus creating 2 hydrogen ions, 2 electrons, and one oxygen molecule. The way the electrons and H+'s get back to their respective positions is by going through the ATP synthase. The H+'s and electrons pump up the synthase which is powered by ADP which brings in another phosphate to create ATP, which leaves us where we started off. To summarize, the outputs of the light reaction are 1 NADPH, 1 ATP, and 1 oxygen molecule.

Two of the three outputs of the light reaction are going to be used to power the Calvin cycle, the NADPH and the ATP. Except, there is another input of the Calvin reaction that comes from the outside world, carbon dioxide. This reaction also takes place inside the thylakoid membrane. To start the cycle, the 3 carbons enter (one at a time). Since carbon dioxide is not usable energy, it has to be transformed. So once the carbon enters the cycle it is immediately met by 3 RuBP (one for each carbon), which is a 5-carbon molecule, to create a short-lived 3 6-carbon molecule. Since this 6 carbon molecule is still unstable, it is rearranged into 6 3-carbon molecules. This phase of the cycle is called carbon fixation. Next, 6 ATP and 6 NAPDH come in from the light reaction to rearrange the 6 3-carbon molecules into 6 PGAL's, which is a 3 carbon sugar. The 6 ATP is oxidized to 6 ADP and the 6 NADPH is oxidized to 6 NADP+ and 6 phosphates. From the 6 PGAL's, one of these leave to create 5 PGAL's. Then with the help of 3 ATP, the PGAL's are rearranged back into 3 RuBP, which is the beginning of the cycle. Finally, the outputs of the Calvin cycle are 1 PGAL, 9 ADP, and 6 NADP+.

These two processes are the components that make up photosynthesis. This doesn't always occur at the same speed every time. There are things that could tamper with the rate of photosynthesis. Two of those things I believe to be are sunlight, and heat. I think sunlight could be a factor because in order to start the light reaction you need sunlight, and if there isn't a sufficient amount, the rate could be a lot slower compared to if there a great deal of light. The reason why I think heat could also be a factor is because if there is a perfect amount of heat, then photosynthesis will run very smoothly. However, if there is too much heat, I think that it could possibly burn off necessary components of photosynthesis or can be too hot for the plant to handle. In conclusion, I believe that things such as sunlight and heat can be both extremely helpful to the rate of  photosynthesis, but also not as efficient if there are unbalanced amounts.